«The military architecture of ancient Chorasmia» ÑÎÄÅÐÆÀÍÈÅ Preface (S. W. Helms) 7 Introduction 21 1. Archaeological investigations of defensive works of ancient Chorasmia 1.1. Questions regarding the history of ancient Chorasmia 35 1.2. Archaeological investigations into defensive works of ancient Chorasmia 45 Gorodische Bol'shoi K'irk-k'iz-kala 46 Gorodische Eres-kala (also Ar'is-kala) 47 Gorodische Kazakl'i-yatkan 49 Gorodische Devkesken 52 Gorodische Ayaz-kala III 53 Tash-k'irman-tepe 56 Bol'shoi Aibuiir-kala 57 Ichan-kala (Khiva) 58 Bol'shoi Gul'dursun 59 Ìàl'ii K'irk-k'iz-kala 59 Kurgashin-kala 60 Devkesken wall 62 Toprak-kala (Khivinskaya) 64 Toprak-kala (Shavatskaya) 64 Kz'il-kala 65 Angka-kala 66 Gyaur-kala (Sultan-uiz-dag) 67 Akchungul' 68 Duman-kala 68 Kuz'i-kr'ilgan-kala 68 2. Stages in the development of fortifications of ancient Chorasmia 2.1. Fortifications of the Archaic period, 6th to 5th centuries B.C. 71 2.2. Fortifications of the 'Kangiui' period, 4th century B.C. to the beginning of the 1st century A.D. 73 2.3. Fortifications of the 'Kushan' period, 1st to 4th centuries A.D. 75 2.4. Typological classification of defensive works of ancient Chorasmia 76 2.5. Principles of fortification elements 77 Selection of site 77 Ditch 78 Proteichismata 80 Structitre of walls 82 Pilasters 85 Towers 86 Loopholes 90 Gates 93 Ramps 95 Citadels 96 Construction techniques 97 2.6. Armament and warfare 98 Bow and arrow 100 Sling stones 101 Slings and stone-catapults 102 3. The place of ancient Chorasmian fortifications in relation to the fortifications of Central Asia 105 Conclusion 123 Appendix (A.U. Ñ. Betts): Chorasmians, Central Asian nomads and Chorasmian military architecture 131 Bibliography Abbreviations 159 Bibliography 161 Illustrations List of illustrations 183 Figures 191